Applied Ergonomics

Introduction:
The summary of 23 highly useful ‘‘lessons learned’’ in applying ergonomics to the analysis and design of systems, and supporting documentation is presented here. This will be useful to ergonomists in various ways, including applying ergonomics to system analysis and design and ‘‘selling’’ ergonomics programs and projects to clients, or to one’s own management. As used herein, a ‘‘system’’ can be as simple as a single person with a tool to as complex as a multinational corporation.

Summary of the ‘‘lessons learned’’, described herein

1. The science and practice of ergonomics is the same throughout the world

The emphasis on particular facets or applications of ergonomics may differ from country to country, but the ergonomics professionals are concerned with design of the interfaces between humans and the other system components for improving health, safety, comfort and productivity, including quality, and reducing design induced human error. As practiced universally, the over-all goal of human factor professionals is to improve the quality of human life.

2. Its unique technology defines and scopes ergonomics as a discipline

As a practice, ergonomists around the world apply human–system interface

technology (HSIT) to the design or modification of systems to enhance safety,

health, comfort, and performance, including productivity and quality. These goals are achieved through applying HSIT to the analysis, design, test and evaluation,

standardization, and control of systems. It is the development and application of HSIT that both identifies ergonomics as a unique, scientifically based discipline and defines its current scope. HSIT, in turn, has at least five identifiable major components

Ø  Human–machine interface technology or hardware ergonomics

Ø  Human–environment interface technology or environmental ergonomics

Ø  Human–software interface technology or cognitive ergonomics

Ø  Human–job interface technology or work design ergonomics

Ø  Human–organization interface technology, or macro ergonomics

3. Ergonomics technology can be applied to any system, product, or built

environment

All socio-technical systems involve the interface of humans with other system components. All human–system interfaces require consideration of the same human

capabilities, limitations and other characteristics. All require the application of the same scientifically based HSIT.

4. Ergonomics is not simply a lay person’s ‘‘common sense’’; professional expertise

is required

Unfortunately, from the author’s experience, there are many persons who call themselves ergonomists or human factors specialists who have virtually no education and training in HSIT and its application. The development of professional certification programs in ergonomics—such as the Euro Ergonomist (CREE) and the IEA endorsed Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics (BCPE) programs—serves to help organizations identify persons who have the necessary professional education, training, and experience in HSIT.

5. Good ergonomics projects typically give a direct cost–benefit of from 1 to 2, to 1 to 10+,  with a typical pay-back period of 6–24 months

Of particular note is the fact that life cycle cost savings can be of even greater importance than the initial direct savings.

6. Effective ergonomics programs on large system development projects take only 1% of   the engineering design budget
7. The earlier ergonomics is applied in design, the cheaper the cost and greater the

Benefit

The earlier there is professional ergonomics participation in the design team’s work, the less costly is the effort. From the author’s experience, the ergonomics portion of the engineering budget increases when ergonomists are brought in late in the project because serious human–system interface problems have surfaced that require major retrofits in order to correct them. The same trend in costs also applies to software development.The cost of catching and solving ergonomic usability design problems early in the software design process costs about one-fourth of what the same changes made late would cost.

8. The language of business is money

Managers have to justify any expenditure in terms of the cost–benefit ratio—how the project will affect the bottom line. Accordingly, we must express ergonomic project proposals in financial terms. Costs include such things as the cost of personnel, equipment, and materials, any reduced productivity or loss of sales during implementation, and overhead costs. Benefits include personnel savings; reductions in scrap, rejects, production parts, material, and overhead; and increases in output, sales, or company stock value. It is important for us to conduct a cost–benefit analysis of the various feasible ergonomic solutions, and be prepared to present our analyses to management in a clear and precise manner.

9. Costs and benefits of ergonomics projects must be measured

We must measure the actual costs and benefits of our projects to show the actual value added of ergonomics—and share that information with others. It is through actual documentation of our value added that we gain credibility with decision-makers and get new opportunities to apply our knowledge.

10. The trade-off diamond is a useful tool for evaluating interventions

Imagine a diamond in which the shape can change to lengthen or shorten one of the four points, and that each of the points represents a basic intervention strategy: (a) personnel selection, (b) training, (c) human–system interface design, and (d) job performance aids. In general, as one of these points gets ‘‘lengthened’’ or implemented, the need for the other strategy points diminish. Thus, if one better designs the human–system interfaces, the need for additional training or hiring people with a higher skill level diminishes.

11. Ergonomic improvements to reduce accidents and work-related musculoskeletal disorders usually improve productivity—and vice versa
12. Pick the ‘‘low hanging fruit’’ first

Obtain quick results from micro-ergonomic interventions to gain credibility with management. Then you are in a position to make macro ergonomic improvements to work systems. This typically is accomplished by selecting those obvious deficiencies that readily can be fixed and show positive results quickly, such as excessive lifting and awkward postures.

13. Look for the simple, economic solution first

      14. Less tangible benefits from ergonomic improvements also can have a significant

            economic impact

Included can be improved employee satisfaction and commitment, which leads to ‘‘good citizenship’’ behaviour (e.g., willingness to work overtime to get the job done, and better collaboration with others or other departments) and an improved corporate image, which can result in less governmental scrutiny and better community relations can have a positive financial impact.

      15. Employee ergonomics training is important to safety and productivity

      16. Real management commitment essential: deeds, not just words

Real commitment gets reflected by such things as hiring qualified ergonomics and safety professionals, providing ergonomics training to all employees, implementing and supporting ergonomics and safety committees, funding appropriate risk analyses, and funding follow-up corrective actions when they can be justified from a cost–benefit standpoint.

      17. Collaboration invariably works better than confrontation

When the ergonomist respects the ownership and design expertise of the design engineer for his/her part of the project, and is collaboratively supportive of that engineer, that engineer is likely to be far more open to, and accepting of, the ergonomist’s input.              

     18.  Ergonomists can be effective system integrators on system development projects

Because ergonomists get involved in the ergonomic design aspects of all system components and subsystems, they are likely to know more about the entire system than any other single engineer. They thus can sometimes see possibilities that others miss.

    19.  OSHA guidelines really do work

In every case where the OSHA guidelines for a professional ergonomics program have been implemented, the organization has experienced significant reductions in lost time accidents and injuries (and often, improved productivity). On the other hand, in those cases where major elements of the OSHA guidelines have not been implemented, the ergonomics and safety programs was found to be inadequate and the accident and injury rate to be unnecessarily high and, often, productivity to be sub-optimal. This is not surprising in that the OSHA guidelines are based on extensive research on what actually works and does not work.

20. Participatory ergonomics is a proven methodology for ensuring that the derived    

      benefits of a macro ergonomic intervention will last

Employees best know the problems with their jobs and which ergonomic alternatives will be most satisfying to them. When, through participatory ergonomics, they are involved in the process, they are likely to ‘‘buy in’’ to the work system changes.

21. True macro ergonomics interventions typically achieve a 50–90% improvement     

      in one or more work system effectiveness criteria

The use of a macro ergonomic approach for implementing TQM at L.L. Bean, a US manufacturer and mail order catalogue distributor of high quality clothing (Rooney et al., 1993). Using methods similar to those for Imada’s petroleum distribution company intervention, but with TQM as the primary objective, over a 70% reduction in lost time accidents and injuries was achieved within a 2-year period in both the production and distribution divisions of the company.

     22. Human-centered design of products and systems is the sure way to success

     23. Ride the coattails of the latest management fad

One way to sell a macro ergonomics intervention is to integrate it with whatever is the hot management program or fad at the time.

Conclusion:

This issue states that Ergonomists have a responsibility to document the cost–benefit analysis of a proposed ergonomics project and advertise those results to management, government decision-makers, and the public in general. It is only through these efforts that they can raise the consciousness of others to the value of ergonomics and gain their support. To achieve the potential of ergonomics, the scientific literature need to be translated into practical ‘‘how to’’ guidelines and specifications for practical engineering design use. Much research is needed to determine the outcome predictability of our interventions. At present, at best, outcomes can be predicted within a broad range only. Given the rapid advancements in technology and the profound challenges those changes will provide for this discipline, research is needed to ensure that the knowledge base of Ergonomists is adequate to meet those changes.